Agricultural Fumigants Market Size and Forecast 2026 to 2035
The global agricultural fumigants market size was estimated at USD 2.85 billion in 2025 and is expected to increase from USD 3.01 billion in 2026 to USD 4.94 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of 5.65% from 2026 to 2035. Asia Pacific dominated the agricultural fumigants market with the largest revenue share of 33.00% in 2025. In terms of volume, the market is projected to grow from 356.73 kilo tons in 2025 to 550.29 kilo tons by 2035. growing at a CAGR of 4.43% from 2026 to 2035. The rising focus on sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives due to the rising demand from farmers to protect crops from pests and diseases drives the growth of the market.Fumigation is a process that involves pest control, which helps remove harmful pests and microorganisms. Fumigants are gaseous vapours and materials which is used to control insects and rodents, also sterilize stored grains, food, and other agricultural commodities. Fumigants are highly volatile liquids which does not leave any residue on the product after fumigation. It involves filling an area with a fumigant gas, which is then allowed to penetrate and kill pests.
This method is effective because fumigants can reach pests within the commodities and in enclosed spaces, unlike some other insecticides. Benefits of fumigation involve effective pest control, prevention of damage and losses, and protection of commodities. Sustainable agricultural fumigants adoption aligns with rising environmental concerns, driving the growth of the market.

Market Highlights
- North America agricultural fumigants market dominated the global market, with the largest revenue share of 33.00% in 2025
- By Product the, Phosphine segment dominated the agricultural fumigants market and accounted for the largest revenue share of 28.00% in 2025.
- By form, the Liquid segment dominated the market and accounted for the largest revenue share of 55.00% in 2024.
What are the Key Drivers for the Growth of the Agricultural Fumigants Market?
The agricultural fumigants market growth is driven by a shift towards rising adoption of sustainable alternatives to the toxic fumigants drives the demand for the market, with rising environmental concerns driving the growth. The rising population demand for an increase in crop production due to higher demand helps grow. Storing grain and crops safely also requires and demands pest control, which ensures crop quality, which supports the growth of the market. Advancement and new and modern storage facilities for effective fumigation drive the demand and help in the expansion of the market. Government initiatives that support food security and also promote less harvest loss attract the farmers to practice sustainable farming practices and also help grow the market. Climate change and rising pest incidence contribute to higher demand for the use of effective agricultural fumigation solutions, which supports the growth of the market.
Market Trends
- Rising demand for pest control due to the increasing demand by farmers to protect crops and stored grains from diseases and pests drives the market.
- Increasing focus on food security due to rising population and urbanization demands for fumigation to reduce harvest losses.
- Advancement in fumigation techniques and advancement in storage facilities to enhance efficiency and fumigation practices are a growing trend in the market.
- Rising demand and shift towards sustainable alternatives to traditional toxic fumigants, which align with the environment, fuel the growth of the market.
- Rising demand for high-quality and high-value crops raises the demand for the market due to a rise in consumer demand.
- Stringent regulation promotes the development and adoption of sustainable alternatives and drives growth.
Report Scope
| Report Attributes | Details |
| Market Size in 2026 | USD 3.01 Billion |
| Market Size by 2035 | USD 4.94 Billion |
| Growth Rate from 2025 to 2035 | CAGR 5.65% |
| Base Year of Estimation | 2024 |
| Forecast Period | 2025 - 2035 |
| High Impact Region | North America |
| Segment Covered | By Product,By Application, By Region |
| Key Companies Profiled | Dow, Bayer AG, Arkema, AMVAC Chemical Corporation, LANXESS, BASF, Trinity Manufacturing, Inc., Arysta LifeScience Corporation, Novozymes A/S, part of Novonesis Group, Syngenta International AG, Corteva Agriscience, Detia Degesch GmbH, UPL Limited, SGS SA, MustGrow Biologics Corp., |
Agricultural Fumigants Market -- Value Chain Analysis
Chemical Production & Formulation
- Agricultural fumigants are manufactured through chemical synthesis and formulation of active ingredients such as methyl bromide alternatives, phosphine generators, chloropicrin, and metam sodium. Production involves controlled synthesis, stabilization, and packaging into liquid, gas, or solid formulations designed for soil treatment, stored grain protection, pest eradication, and quarantine applications.
- Key players: BASF SE, Syngenta, UPL Limited, ADAMA Ltd.
Quality Testing and Certification
- Agricultural fumigants require strict regulatory approvals and safety certifications to ensure environmental protection, worker safety, and effective pest control. Certification frameworks include pesticide registration, environmental risk assessments, and international chemical safety regulations.
- Key players: United States Environmental Protection Agency, European Chemicals Agency, Food and Agriculture Organization, International Organization for Standardization.
Distribution to Industrial Users
- Agricultural fumigants are supplied to commercial farming operations, grain storage facilities, food processing companies, logistics and quarantine services, and pest management providers for soil disinfestation, warehouse pest control, and export commodity protection.
- Key players: FMC Corporation, UPL Limited, Degesch GmbH
Market Opportunity
What is the Key Opportunity Responsible of the Growth of the Agricultural Fumigants Market?
The key opportunity responsible for the growth of the agricultural fumigants market is the development of new fumigant technology, which mainly focuses on innovation and advancement in technology for developing environmentally friendly fumigants, which supports the growth of the market. The government initiatives to support and offer farmers with fumigation practices and solutions, and storage facilities support the growth of the market. The agricultural fumigants also offer increasing agricultural production and support food safety concerns, resulting in minimizing and reducing post-harvest losses, which creates a great opportunity for the growth of the market by increasing adoption by the farmers due to the benefits associated with it.
Market Challenge
The Rise in Environmental Concerns and Strict Regulatory Restrictions Hinders the Growth of the Market
The rising environmental concerns are due to the rise in ozone layer depletion, due to the release of harmful toxic chemical fumes, and it also leads to health risks due to constant exposure, like respiratory diseases, skin irritation, and also affects soil and water quality as it leads to contamination. Extensive and repeated use of fumigants also develops resistance in pests, which then leads to crop failure this resulting in hindrance of the growth of the market. The raw material price and labor cost also add to the challenge for the growth of the market. The adoption of new technology and adoption of sustainable practices affects the growth. These factors and challenges hinder the growth of the market. The region is also focusing on the development of bio-based alternatives to traditional fumigants to safer alternatives that support the market growth.
Agricultural Fumigants Regulatory Landscape: Global Regulations
| Country / Region | Regulatory Body | Key Regulations | Focus Areas | Notable Notes |
| United States | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) | Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); Worker Protection Standard (WPS) | Pesticide registration, applicator certification, and environmental safety | Many fumigants are classified as restricted-use pesticides requiring certified applicators. Buffer zones, monitoring rules, and safety training are mandatory. |
| European Union | European Food Safety Authority (EFSA); European Commission | Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009; REACH Regulation | Environmental protection, residue limits, and chemical approval | Strict environmental and food-safety standards drive the shift toward low-toxicity fumigants and sustainable farming inputs. |
| China | Institute for the Control of Agrochemicals (ICAMA), Ministry of Agriculture | Pesticide Administration Regulations | Registration, field testing, and toxicity control | Mandatory local trials and strict approval processes for fumigants to ensure safe agricultural use. |
| India | Central Insecticides Board & Registration Committee (CIB&RC) | Insecticides Act & Rules; pesticide registration requirements | Import approval, product safety, and application regulation | The authority regulates the manufacturing, sale, transport, and use of fumigants across the agriculture and storage sectors. |
Segmental Insights
Product Insights
The phosphine segment dominated the agricultural fumigants market share 28.00% in 2025. The growth of the market is driven by the growing need for effective, efficient, and cost-effective alternatives to the traditional fumigants. Phosphine is highly effective at low concentrations in controlling a large range of pests, which drives the demand for the market. Phosphine can penetrate deeply and ensures effective pest control, and it also does not leave harmful residues on the product, which also attracts the consumers, driving the demand for the market. It is an easy-to-apply fumigant and is a popular choice by farmers and storage facilities.

The low cost, ease of application, and compliance are the factors that drive the growth and expansion of the market. The 1,3-dichloropropene segment expects significant growth in the market during the forecast period. The segment is favoured for its effectiveness, short soil residence time, and compatibility with pest management, which helps grow the market. They are commonly used to control nematodes, soil-borne pathogens, and certain weeds in high-value crops. It is considered to be the most viable alternative to methyl bromide, which is toxic, commonly used for vegetables and fruits. The rising groundwater and environmental contamination the adoption of the segment has increased which resulting in a rise in growth and expansion of the market.
Agricultural Fumigants Market Share, By Product, 2025 (%)
| By Product | Revenue Share, 2025 (%) |
| 1,3 Dichloropropene | 20.00% |
| Chloropicrin | 15.00% |
| Dimethyl Disulfide | 8.00% |
| Methyl Bromide | 6.00% |
| Metam Potassium | 5.00% |
| Metam Sodium | 4.00% |
| Phosphine | 28.00% |
| Others | 14.00% |
Application Insights
The soil segment dominated the agricultural fumigants market share 77.00% in 2025. Soil fumigation is a pre-plant pest control method that is used to sterilize soil by eliminating harmful organisms such as nematodes, bacteria, fungi, insects, and weed seeds, raising the demand for the market. This is useful in improving crop health and productivity of the crop by implementing and creating a pest-free environment by managing and complying with environmental and safety regulations. These factors drive the growth of the market and also help in expansion.
Agricultural Fumigants Market Share, By Application, 2025 (%)
| By Application | Revenue Share, 2025 (%) |
| Soil | 77.00% |
| Others | 23.00% |
Form Insights
The liquid segment dominated the agricultural fumigants market share 55.00% in 2025. The fumigants are applied in the liquid form to the soil to control pests such as nematodes, bacteria, fungi, insects, and weed seeds before planting, which helps yield a good crop. Liquid fumigants are extensively used in high-value crop cultivation due to their efficiency and ease of application. This is done by drip irrigation and by injecting them directly into the soil. It also helps minimise the environmental impact and ensures safety; these factors and applications drive the growth of the market.
The gas segment expects significant growth in the market during the forecast period. These are applied in vapour form to control pests on both soil and storage. They are extensively used in pre-plant soil treatment to prepare the soil and are also used in fumigating the stored grains. These gases deeply penetrate and kill the pests and insects, by offering rapid action and high efficacy. These properties attract the farmers for large adoption, which results in the growth and expansion of the market.
Agricultural Fumigants Market Share, By Form , 2025 (%)
| By Form | Revenue Share, 2025 (%) |
| Solid | 25.00% |
| Liquid | 55.00% |
| Gas | 20.00% |
Regional Insights
How Did North America Dominate the Agricultural Fumigants Market in 2025?
North America dominated the agricultural fumigants market in 2025. The regions' rising focus on food safety regulation and stringent regulations, and ensuring protection of crops for storage and transportation, drives the growth of the market. Rising demand for agricultural products in the region due to increasing consumption of the products aligns with the shift towards green and sustainable use of products. Consumers' demand for green and safe products due to a shift towards healthy product use and green products fuels the growth of the market. The region well well-developed infrastructure and well-developed storage facilities like warehouses, also undergo effective pest control, driving the demand for the market. Advances in fumigation equipment to enhance efficiency, safety, and precision drive the growth and expansion of the market in the region.

The USA Has Seen a Steady Growth in the Agricultural Fumigants Market Due to Increasing Demand
The USA agricultural fumigants market has seen steady growth with rising demand for pest control in crops to protect them from insects and diseases, which demands sustainable and eco-friendly fumigants in the country. The fumigants are used in pre-plant soil treatment and post-harvest treatment, which increases the demand for the fumigants in the country. The country’s increased demand for food security to ensure food production, and also advances and innovations in technology, with evolving crop protection techniques, which are becoming more adoptable by the farmers. These factors support the growth and expansion of the market in the country.
Asia Pacific is Experiencing Steady Growth in the Agricultural Fumigants Market Due to Large Agricultural Practices in the Region.
Asia Pacific held the significant share of the market in 2025 and is expected to grow notably during the forecast period. Asia Pacific has seen significant growth as it holds the largest consumer of agricultural fumigants due to large agricultural practices in the region. The increasing demand from farmers for green and eco-friendly fumigants, with changing climate conditions and a rise in the need for pest control, drives the market in the region. The humid and rigorous changing climate in the region results in high outbreaks of pests and insects in the warehouses and storage areas in the region, which increases the demand for pest control and effective fumigants, which drives the growth of the market.

China is the Largest Market in the Region for the Agricultural Fumigants Market
China has seen steady growth in the agricultural fumigants market, which is a large farming practice in the country due to increasing demand because of the rising population in the country. The demand for organic products is rising, and China is the leading producer of vegetables due to high demand. The government policies of domestic and local use of products increase the large adoption of local products, which contributes to the growth of the market. Key companies are investing in formulating innovative and advanced fumigants for the protection of crops from failure, and also stored grains. These factors and applications drive the growth and expansion of the market in the country.
- The World exported 63,805 shipments of Fumigant from Nov 2023 to Oct 2024 (TTM). These exports were made by 7,903 Exporters to 6,602 Buyers. (Source : Volza )
- Globally, the top three exporters of fumigants are China, the United States, and South Korea. China led in Fumigant exports with 153,185 shipments, the United States with 74,945 shipments, and South Korea taking with the 33,200 shipments. (Source : Volza)
Agricultural Fumigants Market Share, By Regional, 2025 (%)
| Regional | Revenue Share, 2025 (%) |
| North America | 33.00% |
| Europe | 27.00% |
| Asia Pacific | 25.00% |
| Latin America | 7.00% |
| Middle East & Africa | 8.00% |
Recent Developments
- In October 2024, Alaa Farouk, Egypt’s Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, launched the project titled "Sustainable Pesticide Management Framework," which was launched by CropLife. Group in coordination with the Agricultural Pesticides Committee. (Source : dailynewsegypt)
- In March 2025, the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) introduced the SprayDays California, a latest online notification system designed to enhance transparency regarding pesticide use. This system offers alerts before the application of restricted pesticides in their vicinity. (Source : agnetwest.com)
Top Companies List

- Dow
- Bayer AG
- Arkema
- AMVAC Chemical Corporation
- LANXESS
- BASF
- Trinity Manufacturing, Inc.
- Arysta LifeScience Corporation
- Novozymes A/S, part of Novonesis Group
- Syngenta International AG
- Corteva Agriscience
- Detia Degesch GmbH
- UPL Limited
- SGS SA
- MustGrow Biologics Corp.
Segments Covered in the Report
By Product
- 1,3 Dichloropropene
- Chloropicrin
- Dimethyl Disulfide
- Methyl Bromide
- Metam Potassium
- Metam Sodium
- Phosphine
- Others
By Application
- Soil
- Others
By Form
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
By Region
- North America
- U.S.
- Canada
- Europe
- Germany
- UK
- France
- Italy
- Spain
- Sweden
- Denmark
- Norway
- Asia Pacific
- China
- Japan
- India
- South Korea
- Thailand
- Latin America
- Brazil
- Mexico
- Argentina
- Middle East and Africa (MEA)
- South Africa
- UAE
- Saudi Arabia
- Kuwait
A Seven-Phase Framework
Our methodology is designed to be universally applicable across commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petrochemicals, construction chemicals, coatings, electronic chemicals, industrial gases, agrochemicals, water treatment chemicals, and performance materials. Each phase builds upon the last, creating a layered validation structure that minimizes estimation error and maximizes analytical confidence.
The framework ensures comprehensive market coverage, robust cross-validation, and reliable long-term forecasting — producing market estimates that withstand scrutiny from investors, regulators, and corporate strategy teams.
Seven-Phase Framework — Analytical Effort Distribution
Relative analytical effort allocated across each phase of the Chemicals & Materials research framework
Phase 1 - Secondary Research: Establishing the Foundation
Secondary research collects and evaluates publicly available information from authoritative sources, establishing the foundational understanding of market structure, value chain dynamics, competitive landscape, and end-use demand patterns. Every source is evaluated for credibility, recency, geographic relevance, and methodological soundness before inclusion.
Industry Associations
Sources include ACC, CEFIC, ICCA, JCIA, CPCIF, and SOCMA providing production volumes, consumption trends, capacity developments, and sustainability initiatives.
Company Disclosures
Annual reports, investor presentations, earnings transcripts, and regulatory filings reveal product portfolios, manufacturing footprints, capacity expansions, and revenue segmentation.
Government Databases
National statistical offices, customs authorities, environmental agencies, and industrial production databases provide verified statistics on output, trade flows, and regulatory compliance.
Trade Databases
UN Comtrade, ITC, Eurostat, and national customs authorities enable assessment of global product movement, import dependency, and export competitiveness across regions.
Our Secondary Research Sources
- Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers
- European Chemicals Agency
- United States Department of Energy
- Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
- Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry
- Ministry of Trade Industry and Energy
- National Institute of Standards and Technology
- Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Fraunhofer Society
- National Institute for Materials Science
Phase 2 — Supply-Side Assessment: Mapping Production Capabilities
Production Capacity Analysis
All major manufacturers are assessed for existing installed capacity, planned additions, expansions, new plant announcements, and technology adoption — mapped at global, regional, and country levels.
Capacity Utilization Adjustment
Installed capacity is adjusted using utilization rates based on demand conditions, feedstock availability, plant operating rates, maintenance schedules, and regulatory restrictions.
Manufacturer Revenue Analysis
Product-specific revenues, segment-level performance, regional distribution, average selling prices, and margin trends are evaluated to establish market value estimates.
Supply-Side Assessment — Capacity vs. Effective Production by Region
Illustrative comparison of installed capacity vs. effective production volume (after utilization rate adjustment) across major regions
Phase 3 — Demand-Side Assessment: Quantifying Chemical Consumption
Demand-side analysis quantifies chemical consumption across industries, applications, and geographies — identifying where and how chemicals are consumed throughout the value chain with precision.
End-Use Industry Analysis
Chemical demand is evaluated across automotive, construction, packaging, electronics, agriculture, healthcare, consumer goods, industrial manufacturing, energy and utilities, and water treatment. Industry output, production trends, and consumption intensity are analyzed to determine demand patterns.
Consumption Modeling
Demand is estimated using measurable indicators: kilograms per vehicle, kilograms per square meter of construction, dosage per cubic meter of water treated, kilograms per hectare of agricultural land, and kilograms per ton of manufactured products. Consumption factors are validated through industry publications and primary interviews.
Application Analysis
The market is segmented by application area to understand product performance requirements, formulation trends, technology adoption, customer preferences, and regulatory requirements improving demand accuracy and segmentation granularity.
Demand-Side Assessment — End-Use Industry Demand Distribution
Illustrative distribution of chemical & materials demand across key end-use industries
Phase 4 - Trade Flow Analysis: Balancing Regional Supply and Demand
Trade flow analysis reconciles regional supply and demand estimates through import and export data, identifying net supply positions, regional dependencies, and market imbalances. It serves as an independent validation layer that tests the consistency of supply-side and demand-side estimates.
Import Analysis
Import data is evaluated to determine volumes, source countries, product dependency, regional supply gaps, and pricing trends — identifying markets that rely heavily on external supply and where domestic production is insufficient to meet demand.
Export Analysis
Export assessments reveal production surplus, export competitiveness, regional manufacturing strength, and global market participation. Export patterns also help validate domestic production estimates and identify net exporting regions.
Apparent Consumption Model
Regional consumption is assessed using the standard apparent consumption formula:
Results identify net importing regions, net exporting regions, regional deficits, and surpluses — serving as an independent validation of supply and demand estimates.
Trade Flow Analysis — Net Supply Position by Region
Illustrative apparent consumption vs. domestic production across major regions — positive gap indicates net import dependency
Phase 5 — Primary Research: The Critical Validation Layer
Primary research tests and refines findings from secondary research through direct engagement with industry participants across the supply chain, demand side, and expert community. It captures intelligence that no database or published report can provide — the real-world experience of manufacturers, buyers, and specialists operating in the market.
Supply-Side Interviews
Conversations with chemical manufacturers, raw material suppliers, contract manufacturers, technology providers, and plant operators cover production trends, capacity utilization, pricing developments, technology shifts, and competitive dynamics.
Demand-Side Interviews
Engagement with OEMs, industrial consumers, procurement managers, distributors, formulators, and end-use manufacturers focuses on consumption trends, purchasing behavior, product substitution, demand outlook, and emerging applications.
Industry Expert Consultations
Additional interviews with industry consultants, independent experts, regulatory specialists, technical professionals, and research institutions provide deeper market context and validate key analytical assumptions.
Focus Areas of Primary Research:
Market Size & Forecast Validation
Revenue estimates, volume consumption, growth rates, forecast assumptions, regional demand.Supply Chain & Value Chain Assessment
Raw material sourcing, supply chain challenges, distribution networks, procurement practices.Production & Capacity Analysis
Manufacturing capacity, utilization rates, expansion projects, plant investments.Pricing & Cost Structure Analysis
Product pricing trends, feedstock costs, energy costs, margin pressures, pricing outlook.Competitive Landscape Assessment
Volume and value estimates confirmed to be fully consistent with one another before publicationInterview Volume by Market Scope
| Study Scope | Number of Interviews |
|---|---|
| Niche Market | 20 – 30 |
| Mid-Sized Market | 30 – 50 |
| Global Market | 50 – 80 |
| Highly Fragmented Market | 80 – 120 |
Interview Details:
Category : Manufacturers, Suppliers, Distributors, End Users, Experts/Associations
Average Duration : 30–60 Minutes
Interview Mode : Video calls, telephonic interviews, expert consultations
Interview Format : Structured / Semi-Structured questionnaire
Focus Areas of Primary Research:
Market Size & Forecast Validation :
Revenue estimates, volume consumption, growth rates, forecast assumptions, regional demand.
Supply Chain & Value Chain Assessment :
Raw material sourcing, supply chain challenges, distribution networks, procurement practices.
Production & Capacity Analysis :
Manufacturing capacity, utilization rates, expansion projects, plant investments.
Pricing & Cost Structure Analysis :
Product pricing trends, feedstock costs, energy costs, margin pressures, pricing outlook.
Competitive Landscape Assessment :
Market share, competitor positioning, strategic initiatives, partnerships, acquisitions.
Primary Research — Stakeholder Coverage by Category
Distribution of interview respondents across stakeholder categories (% share from PPT data)
Primary Research — Respondent Designation Profile
Seniority breakdown of interview respondents (% share from PPT data)
Primary Research — Geographic Coverage of Interviews
Regional distribution of primary research engagement (% share from PPT data)
Phase 6 — Data Triangulation and Market Validation
No single methodology is relied upon in isolation. Multiple independent estimation approaches are combined and reconciled to ensure consistency, accuracy, and analytical defensibility. Any material deviations between approaches are investigated and adjusted through additional validation cycles.
The final market size is derived through weighted triangulation of all validated methodologies. Any material deviations between approaches are investigated and adjusted through additional validation cycles. The outcome represents the most realistic assessment of the market based on available evidence and expert confirmation ensuring that volume and value estimates are fully consistent with one another.
Triangulation Framework — Input Contribution Weight
Relative weight each sizing input contributes to the final reconciled market estimate
Phase 7 — Forecast Modeling: Projecting Future Market Evolution
Forecasting evaluates the future trajectory of the market using a combination of quantitative indicators and qualitative assessments across economic, industry, and regulatory dimensions. Rather than simple extrapolation, each driver is independently modeled and integrated into a composite forecast.
Macroeconomic Indicators
GDP growth, industrial production, manufacturing output, construction activity, consumer spending, and capital investment form the quantitative foundation of long-term demand projections. These are applied at country, regional, and global levels.
Industry Growth Drivers
Urbanization, infrastructure development, industrialization, technological innovation, sustainability initiatives, and evolving product performance requirements are assessed at regional and industry levels — capturing both structural and cyclical demand drivers.
Capacity Expansion Analysis
Announced plant expansions, new manufacturing facilities, technology upgrades, and strategic investments are evaluated to determine future supply-demand dynamics and potential market tightness or oversupply situations.
Regulatory & Sustainability
Environmental regulations, chemical safety standards, emission reduction targets, circular economy initiatives, and sustainability requirements are incorporated as they often influence product adoption rates and market growth trajectories.
Scenario Forecast Range — Indexed Market Growth (Year 1–10)
Illustrative indexed growth trajectories across Base, Optimistic, and Pessimistic scenarios over a 10-year forecast horizon
Forecast Drivers — Relative Impact Score by Category
Impact score (0–100) of each driver type on chemicals & materials market forecast
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